Содержание
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Lecture 1
Anglo-Saxon England
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An outline
Historical Linguistics. The Comparative method. The Concept of Proto-Germanic (PG) Grimm’s Law. Verner’s Law. Periods in the History of English. The earliest inhabitants of the British Isles OE Heptarchy. OE Dialects. Christianity and writing
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Historical Linguistics. The Comparative method. late 18th and 19th centuries
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Sir William Jones (1746-1794)
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Sanskrit LatinGreekPersianGothicCeltic
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The English scholar and diplomat William Jones (18th c.), working in India as a British judge, noticed certain features in the vocabulary and grammar of Sanskrit (the ancient classical language of India) that were shared with Latin and Greek and other European languages. He asserted that these languages developed from a common source language. He identified the source language as Sanskrit
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Interest in the discovery mounted and, early in the 19th century, Sanskrit was being studied in the West. the 19th century is the era of historical-comparative linguistics, led by German scholarship: the Dane Rasmus Rask the Germans Franz Boppand Jacob Grimm
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The comparative method is a technique for studying the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages with common descent from a shared ancestor.
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The German scholar Franz Boppwas the first to work out some of the relationships between the languages, showing how they were related.
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The Danish scholar Rasmus Raskrecognized that there were regular sound shiftsbetween languages, but it was left to a German scholar Jacob Grimmwho deduced regular rules of sound change
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August Schleicher(1821–68) set about reconstructing the hypothetical parent language from which most European languages were derived – the protolanguage. He also devised the genealogical family-tree modelof the Indo-European languages.
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2. The Concept of Proto-Germanic (PG)
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Scheme of Indo-European migrations from ca. 4000 to 1000 BC
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the “Satem” languages the “Centum” languages
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The Indo-European family of languages, has developed out of some single language, which must have been spoken thousands of years ago by some comparatively small body of people in a relatively restricted geographical area.
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This original language we can call Proto-Indo-European (PIE). The prefix proto- was introduced to indicate a hypothetical language that had left no documentation, but which could be reconstructed by the method of comparison
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Proto-Indo-European (PIE) - some single language, which must have been spoken thousands of years ago by some comparatively small body of people in a relatively restricted geographical area
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Proto-Germanic (PG) - a dialect of Indo-European all Germanic languages are descended from We have no records of the PG. We can reconstruct it by comparing the various daughter languages, especially valuable are languages with early literary records, Gothic in particular.
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Proto-Germanic West Germanic North Germanic East Germanic
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North Germanic (Old Norse) West Scandinavian: Icelandic Norwegian Faroese East Scandinavian: Danish Swedish Gutnish
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East Germanic: Burgundian Vandal Gothic: Visigothic Ostrogothic
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In the 4th c. Goths were Christianized by a missionary named Ulfilas (311–383). Our knowledge of Gothic is almost wholly due to a translation of the Gospels and other parts of the New Testament made by Ulfilas. Except for some runic inscriptions in Scandinavia it is the earliest record of a Germanic language we possess. Gothic is important in giving information about early forms of Germanic.
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West Germanic
Old High German High German Old Saxon Low German Old Low Franconian Dutch Old English English Old Frisian Frisian
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One important aspect of PIE is that it was an inflected language. PG is a highly inflected language, like PIE.
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In PG the stress was put on the 1st syllable (fixed accent),in PIE – it could fall on any syllable (free accent). The tendency in PG to stabilize the accent on the 1st syllable had profound consequences. It led to a weakening and often loss of unstressed syllables, especially at the end of the word
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PIE verb “bheronom” PG beranan OE beran ME beren, bere PDE bear
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3. The First consonant shift.Grimm’s Law
“the 1st sound-shifting”; after the early 19th c. philologist Jakob Grimm, who analysed it.
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Grimm began with the assumption that Sanscrit, Greek, Latin and other European languages had a common ancestor. This common ancestor, which we will call Proto-Indo-European, can be reconstructed by examining its descendants.
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FATHER Sanskrit – pitar Latin – pater Ancient Greek – pāter English – father Because the “p” sound appears in a wider variety of languages, it is assumed to be ancestral and the “f” in English to be derived from a consonant shift.
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Grimm’s Law
It consists of 3 major consonant changes.
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PIE aspirated voiced stops > Gmc voiced stops
Bh > b Sans. bharami – ModE bear Dh > d Sans. rudhiras – ModE red Gh > g Gr. chen – Ger Gans
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PIE voiceless stops > Gmc voiceless fricatives
P > f L. pater – ModE father T > th L. dentis – ModE tooth K > h L. cornu – ModE horn
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PIE voiced stops > Gmc voiceless stops
b > p L. turba – ModE thorp d > t L. dens – ModE tooth g > k L. ager – ModE acre
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Verner’s Law.The Second Consonant Shift (1875)
Certain apparent exceptions to Grimm’s Law were subsequently explained by Karl Verner (a Danish scholar) and others.
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Verner’s Law.
Karl Verner showed that voiceless fricatives became voiced if the preceding syllable was unstressed, but otherwise remained unchanged. Latin centum - English hundred.
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PIE f > Gmc v PIE th > Gmc d Lat pater – Gth fadar PIE k > Gmc g PIE s > Gmc z > r in North and West Germanic) = rotacizm Gth. raisjan – OE ræran
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The HighGermanConsonantShift
The HighGermanConsonantShift orthe SecondGermanConsonantshift wasaseriesofsoundchangeswhichseparatesthe UpperHighGerman dialectsfromotherWestGermaniclanguagessuchasModern English, Dutch, and Low German. There are three major steps of this sound shift,
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The first stageis where the three voiceless stops became weakened into the closest fricative equivalents: /p/ → /f/ /t/ → /s/ /k/ → /x/ Cf. English grip – German Griff
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The second stageof the shift involved the same voiceless stops as the first stage. However, this only affected geminated, liquid-adjacent (-l, -r) and nasal-adjacent forms. Those stops became Affricates. /p/ → /pf/ /t/ → /ʦ/ /k/ → /kx/ Cf. Gth. twai, OE twa – OHG zwei
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The third part of the stage involves the Voiced stops becoming voiceless stops. This involves the following: /b/ → /p/ /d/ → /t/ /g/ → /k/ Cf. English flood – German Flut for greater understanding go to the chart on p. 13 [Иванова И.П., Чахоян Л.П., Беляева Т.М. Практикум по историианглийскогоязыка. – Cпб., 2005]
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4. Periods in the History of English
Traditionally, the history of the English language is divided into 3 major periods. This division was first proposed by an English philologist, Henry Sweet, in 1873.
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Periods in the History of English
Old English (Anglo-Saxon) (5 c.-1066) = the period of full inflexions; Middle English (1066 – 1485) = of levelled inflexions; Modern English (1485 - ...) = of lost inflexions.
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5. TheearliestinhabitantsoftheBritishIsles.
The earliest inhabitants of the British Isles, whose language we can reconstruct, were Celticspeakers. The Celts had been living in England until being invaded by the Romans (the Emperor Claudius) in 43 AD But, Latin never overtook the Celtic language.
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It was inevitable that the military conquest of Britain should have been followed by the Romanization of the province.
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By the beginning of the 5th century the Roman Empire was under increasing pressure from advancing barbarians, and the Roman garrisons in Britain were being depleted as troops were withdrawn to face threats closer to home.
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In A.D. 410, the same year in which the Visigoths entered and sacked Rome, the last of the Roman troops were withdrawn and the Britons had to defend themselves. Facing hostile Picts and Scots in the north and Germanic raiders in the east, the Britons decided to hire one enemy to fight the other: they engaged Germanic mercenaries to fight the Picts and Scots.
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Germanic mercenaries were from three Germanic nations: the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. The mercenaries succeeded quickly in defeating the Picts and Scots and then being attracted by the British fertile lands began to conquer England —a slow-moving conquest that would take more than a century.
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About the year 449 ADbegan the invasion of Britain by certain Germanic tribes, the founders of the English nation. The Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain mustn’t be thought of as the arrival of a unified invading army, but rather as the arrival and penetration of various uncoordinated bands of adventurers in different parts of the country, beginning in the mid 5th c. and going on all through the 6th c.
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But by about 700, the Anglo-Saxons had occupied most of England and a considerable part of southern Scotland (the exceptions being Cornwall and an area in the North West). Wales remained a British stronghold
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The language of Anglo-Saxons became the dominant one. The failure of Celtic to influence OE doesn’t mean that the Britons were all killed or driven out. The Britons were a defeated people whose language had no prestige compared with that of the conquerors.
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6. OE Heptarchy.
In the 7th c. Germanic tribes set up seven kingdoms called the Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy, rule of the seven kingdoms .
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Kent Northumbria Mercia (West Midlands) Wessex (central Southern England) East Anglia Essex Sussex
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At first, Kent was probably of major importance. It was to Kent that the first Roman Christian missionaries came, notably St. Augustine in 597 In the 7thc. the Northumbria was very powerful, and was a great center of learning. The monasteries of Northumbria produced beautiful manuscripts of the Bible. In the 8th c. this leadership passed to Mercia
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In the 9th c. = Wessex, centred at Winchester; and it was the kings of Wessex who finally unified the country : (in the late 9th c., the kings of Wessex, notably King Alfred, saved the South and West of England from the Danes ((The Scandinavian Invasions of England. The Viking Age IX-XI c.), 886, the Treaty Wedmore: king Alfred established a truce with the Danish leader . The Dane Law. and in the 10th c. Alfred’s successors reconquered the North and the East.
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The Viking Invasions
793, the Vikings, from Scandinavia, sacked and burned the monastery of Lindisfarne, beginning a century of destruction and cultural collapse.
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in 850, large Danish fleet began to arrive in England, and the Vikings began to conquer as well as pillage. Eventually almost all of northern and eastern England was under their control.
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Alfred, the king of Wessex, was able to rally his kingdom and defeat the Vikings. This led to a treaty between the Viking king Guthrum and Alfred, The Treaty of Wedmore (878).
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The treaty defined the territory (from Chester to London) which was to be subject to Danish law and is hence known as the Danelaw. In addition the Danes agreed to accept Christianity,
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King Alfred
Wessex became the seat of A-S intellectual, literary, and political life; ruled from 871 to 899; brought together scholars to begin a project of educational reform; commissioned the translation of key works of Latin learning into OE
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OE dialects
The surviving texts form the OE period are in 4 main dialects: West saxon! (the literary standard) Kentish Mercia Anglian Northumbria
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Although West Saxon became the literary standard of unified England, it is not the direct ancestor of modern standard English, which is mainly derived from an Anglian dialect
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Christianity and writing
The conversion of the English to Christianity began in 597 when Pope Gregory the Great sent the missionary St Augustineto England, and took a century to complete. England underwent a remarkably bloodless conversion over the next 70 years.
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