Содержание
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slides 1 to 87
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Lymphatic System Organization
Lymphatic System Definitions Pathogens—Organisms that cause disease Lymphatic System—Cells, tissues, and organs that play a central role in the body’s defenses against pathogens Lymphatic system consists of vessels (lymphatics) filled with lymph connected to lymphatic organs Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Figure 14-1 The Components of the Lymphatic System
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Functions of the Lymphatic System Produce, maintain, distribute lymphocytes Lymphocytes attack invading organisms, abnormal cells, foreign proteins Maintain blood volume Help eliminate local variations in interstitial fluid concentration Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Lymphatic Vessels Lymph flows inside Begin as lymphatic capillaries in the tissues Lymph empties into venous system At thoracic duct At right lymphatic duct Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Lymphatic Capillaries Figure 14-2(a)
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Figure 14-2(b) Lymphatic Capillaries
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Figure 14-3 The Lymphatic Ducts and the Venous System
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Three Classes of Lymphocytes T cells Thymus dependent B cells Bone marrow derived NK cells Natural killer Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Types of T Lymphocytes Cytotoxic T cells Provide cell-mediated immunity Attack foreign and virus-infected cells Regulatory T cells Helper T cells Suppressor T cells Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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B Lymphocytes Can become plasma cells Specific to a particular antigen Produce antibodies that react with that antigen Antibodies are immunoglobulins Responsible for humoral or antibody-mediated immunity Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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NK Lymphocytes Provide immunological surveillance Attack cells Foreign cells Virally-infected cells Cancerous cells Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Lymphocyte Life Cycle Continuously migrate between lymphoid tissues and the blood Production and development (called lymphopoiesis)involves: Bone marrow Thymus Peripheral lymphoid tissues Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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The Origins of Lymphocytes Figure 14-4
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Lymphoid Nodules Consists of loose connective tissue containing densely packed lymphocytes Tonsils are lymphoid nodules in the pharynx wall Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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The Tonsils Figure 14-5
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Lymphoid Organs Important lymphoid organs include: Lymph nodes Thymus Spleen Located in areas that are vulnerable to pathogens Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Lymph Nodes Encapsulated masses of lymphoid tissue containing lymphocytes Monitor and filter lymph Remove antigens Initiate immune response Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Figure 14-6 The Structure of a Lymph Node
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The Thymus Lies behind sternum T cells divide and mature there Shrinks after puberty Produces thymosins Hormones that regulate T cell development Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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The Thymus Figure 14-7
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The Thymus Figure 14-7(a)
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The Thymus Figure 14-7(b)
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The Thymus Figure 14-7(c)
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The Spleen White pulp Resembles lymphoid nodules Removes antigens Initiates immune response Red pulp Contains red blood cells Recycles damaged or out-dated RBCs Stores iron from recycled RBCs Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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The Spleen Figure 14-8
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The Spleen Figure 14-8(a)
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Figure 14-8(b) The Spleen
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Overview of Body’s Defenses Non-specific defenses Protect against any threat Specific defenses Protect against particular threats Responds to antigens Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Nonspecific Defenses
Physical Barriers Skin, hair, & skin secretions Digestive epithelia, & secretions Figure 14-9 (1 of 7)
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Phagocytes Microphages (neutrophils, eosinophils) Macrophages Figure 14-9 (2 of 7)
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Immunological Surveillance NK cells Find, kill cancer and virus-infected cells Figure 14-9 (3 of 7)
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Interferons Small proteins released by virus-infected cells Cytokines that trigger release of anti-viral proteins that inhibit virus production Figure 14-9 (4 of 7)
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Complement System Complex system of proteins Initiate chain reaction (positive feedback) Destroy target cell membranes Stimulate inflammation, attract phagocytes Figure 14-9 (5 of 7)
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Inflammatory Response Coordinated non-specific response to tissue injury Figure 14-9 (6 of 7)
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Fever Temperature greater than 99ºF Inhibits pathogens Accelerates metabolism Figure 14-9 (7 of 7)
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Events in Inflammation Figure 14-10
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Specific Defenses: Immunity
Types of Immunity Innate immunity Genetically determined Present at birth Acquired immunity Active Follows exposure to antigen Passive From transfer of antibodies from outside source Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Types of Immunity Figure 14-11
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Properties of Specific Immunity Provided by lymphocytes Four general characteristics Specificity Versatility Memory Tolerance Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Properties of Specific Immunity Specificity T and B cell membrane receptors recognize a unique antigen Versatility Responsive to millions of antigens Memory Memory cells recall earlier encounters with an antigen Tolerance Ignores body’s own antigens Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Overview of the Immune Response Purpose is to inactivate or destroy: Pathogens Abnormal cells Foreign molecules Based on activation of lymphocytes by specific antigens by antigen recognition Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 14-12 1 of 7 Direct physical and chemical attack SPECIFIC DEFENSES (Immune response) ANTIGENS Bacteria Viruses Attack by circulating antibodies B cells activated ANTIBODY–MEDIATED IMMUNITY Communication and feedback CELL–MEDIATED IMMUNITY Phagocytes activated T cells activated
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 14-12 2 of 7 ANTIGENS Bacteria Viruses
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 14-12 3 of 7 SPECIFIC DEFENSES (Immune response) ANTIGENS Bacteria Viruses
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 14-12 4 of 7 SPECIFIC DEFENSES (Immune response) ANTIGENS Bacteria Viruses CELL–MEDIATED IMMUNITY Phagocytes activated T cells activated
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 14-12 5 of 7 SPECIFIC DEFENSES (Immune response) ANTIGENS Bacteria Viruses B cells activated ANTIBODY–MEDIATED IMMUNITY Communication and feedback CELL–MEDIATED IMMUNITY Phagocytes activated T cells activated
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 14-12 6 of 7 Direct physical and chemical attack SPECIFIC DEFENSES (Immune response) ANTIGENS Bacteria Viruses B cells activated ANTIBODY–MEDIATED IMMUNITY Communication and feedback CELL–MEDIATED IMMUNITY Phagocytes activated T cells activated
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 14-12 7 of 7 Direct physical and chemical attack SPECIFIC DEFENSES (Immune response) ANTIGENS Bacteria Viruses Attack by circulating antibodies B cells activated ANTIBODY–MEDIATED IMMUNITY Communication and feedback CELL–MEDIATED IMMUNITY Phagocytes activated T cells activated
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Specific Defenses: Immunity
T Cell Activation Antigens processed by macrophages Fragments form complex with MHC proteins on cell surface T cell recognizes MHC complex, or Viral antigens on infected body cells Activated T cells differentiate further Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Roles for Activated T Cells Cytotoxic (killer) T cells Provide cell-mediated immunity Memory T cells Remember the activating antigen Suppressor T cells Suppress other T and B cells Helper T cells Secrete regulatory cytokines Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Infected cell Viral or bacterial antigen Inactive cytotoxic T cell T cell receptor Class I MHC protein ACTIVATION AND CELL DIVISION Active cytotoxic T cells Memory T cells (inactive) Lymphotoxin release Cytokine release Perforin release Destruction of cell membrane Stimulation of apoptosis Disruption of cell metabolism Lysed cell DESTRUCTION OF TARGET CELL Figure 14-13 1 of 5
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Infected cell Viral or bacterial antigen Inactive cytotoxic T cell T cell receptor Class I MHC protein Figure 14-13 2 of 5
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Infected cell Viral or bacterial antigen Inactive cytotoxic T cell T cell receptor Class I MHC protein ACTIVATION AND CELL DIVISION Active cytotoxic T cells Memory T cells (inactive) Figure 14-13 3 of 5
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Infected cell Viral or bacterial antigen Inactive cytotoxic T cell T cell receptor Class I MHC protein ACTIVATION AND CELL DIVISION Active cytotoxic T cells Memory T cells (inactive) Lymphotoxin release Cytokine release Perforin release Stimulation of apoptosis Figure 14-13 4 of 5 Destruction of cell membrane Disruption of cell metabolism
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Infected cell Viral or bacterial antigen Inactive cytotoxic T cell T cell receptor Class I MHC protein ACTIVATION AND CELL DIVISION Active cytotoxic T cells Memory T cells (inactive) Lymphotoxin release Cytokine release Perforin release Destruction of cell membrane Stimulation of apoptosis Disruption of cell metabolism Lysed cell DESTRUCTION OF TARGET CELL Figure 14-13 5 of 5
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Specific Defenses: Immunity
Key Note Cell-mediated immunity depends on direct contact between cytotoxic T cells and foreign, abnormal, or infected cells. T cell activation usually involves antigen presentation by a phagocytic cell. Cytotoxic T cells destroy target cells with cytokines, lymphotoxins, or perforin. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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B Cells and Antibody-Mediated Immunity B cells are first sensitized by exposure to “their” antigen Helper T cells for that antigen then activate those B cells Activated B cells divide to form: Plasma cells Produce antibodies against that antigen Memory cells Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 14-14 1 of 5 Antigens Sensitization Activation Division and differentiation Class II MHC Antibodies Inactive B cell Antigens bound to antibody molecules Antigen binding Sensitized B cell Sensitized B cell Helper T cell Antigen Class II MHC T cell receptor Stimulation by cytokines Plasma cells Activated B cells Memory B cells (inactive) ANTIBODY PRODUCTION B cell T cell
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 14-14 2 of 5 Antigens Sensitization Class II MHC Antibodies Inactive B cell Antigens bound to antibody molecules Antigen binding Sensitized B cell
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 14-14 3 of 5 Antigens Sensitization Activation Class II MHC Antibodies Inactive B cell Antigens bound to antibody molecules Antigen binding Sensitized B cell Sensitized B cell Helper T cell Antigen Class II MHC T cell receptor B cell T cell
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 14-14 4 of 5 Antigens Sensitization Activation Division and differentiation Class II MHC Antibodies Inactive B cell Antigens bound to antibody molecules Antigen binding Sensitized B cell Sensitized B cell Helper T cell Antigen Class II MHC T cell receptor Stimulation by cytokines Activated B cells Memory B cells (inactive) B cell T cell
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 14-14 5 of 5 Antigens Sensitization Activation Division and differentiation Class II MHC Antibodies Inactive B cell Antigens bound to antibody molecules Antigen binding Sensitized B cell Sensitized B cell Helper T cell B cell T cell Antigen Class II MHC T cell receptor Stimulation by cytokines Plasma cells Activated B cells Memory B cells (inactive) ANTIBODY PRODUCTION
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Specific Defenses: Immunity
Antibody Structure and Function Two pairs of parallel polypeptide chains Four Fixed segments Provides basic structure Four Variable segments Provides specific antigen-binding structure Antigen-antibody complex forms Antigen determinant site binds to antibody Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Antibody Structure Figure 14-15
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Classes of Antibodies Immunoglobulin G (IgG) Resistance to pathogens Immunoglobulin M (IgM) First antibody secreted Immunoglobulin A (IgA) Found in glandular secretions Immunoglobulin E (IgE) Stimulates inflammation Immunoglobulin D (IgD) Found on surface of B cells Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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How Antibodies Can Eliminate Antigens Neutralization Precipitation Agglutination Complement activation Attraction of phagocytes Stimulation of phagocytosis Stimulation of inflammation Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Key Note Antibody-mediated immunity depends on specific antibodies from plasma cells derived from activated B cells by (1) antigen recognition, through binding to surface antibodies, and (2) stimulation by a helper T cell activated by the same antigen. The antibodies bind to the target antigen and either inhibit it, destroy it, remove it from solution, or promote its phagocytosis. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Primary and Secondary Immune Response Primary response—Antibodies produced by plasma cells after first exposure to antigen Secondary response—Maximum antibody levels produced by subsequent exposure to the same antibody Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Figure 14-16 The Primary and Secondary Immune Responses
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Key Note Immunization produces a primary response to a specific antigen. If the same antigen is encountered at a later date, it triggers a powerful secondary response that usually prevents infection and disease. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Hormones of the Immune System Interleukins (IL) Sensitize T cells Stimulate B cells Enhance non-specific defenses Interferons Slow the spread of viruses locally Tumor necrosis factors (TNF) Slows growth, kills tumor cells Phagocytic regulators Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Key Note Viruses replicate inside cells, whereas bacteria usually live outside. Antibodies work outside of cells, so they are primarily effective against bacteria rather than viruses. T cells, NK cells, and interferons are the primary defenses against viral infection. Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Patterns of Immune Response
Figure 14-17 A Summary of the Immune Response and Its Relationship to Nonspecific Defenses
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Immune Disorders Autoimmune disorders Mistaken attack on body’s own tissues Immunodeficiency disease Disease (e.g., AIDS) or a congenital block of immunity Allergies Inappropriate or excessive response to allergens Age-related loss of effectiveness Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Types of Allergies Immediate hypersensitivity (Type I) Cytotoxic reaction (Type II) Immune complex disorders (Type III) Delayed hypersensitivity (Type IV) Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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The Lymphatic System in Perspective FIGURE 14-18 Functional Relationships Between the Lymphatic System and Other Systems Figure 14-18 1 of 11 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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The Integumentary System
Figure 14-18 2 of 11 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Provides physical barriers to pathogen entry; macrophages in dermis resist infection and present antigens to trigger immune response; mast cells trigger inflammation, mobilize cells of lymphatic system Provides IgA antibodies for secretion onto integumentary surfaces
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The Skeletal System
Figure 14-18 3 of 11 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Lymphocytes and other cells involved in the immune response are produced and stored in bone marrow Assists in repair of bone after injuries; macrophages fuse to become osteoclasts
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The Muscular System
Figure 14-18 4 of 11 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Protects superficial lymph nodes and the lymphatic vessels in the abdominopelvic cavity; muscle contractions help propel lymph along lymphatic vessels Assists in repair after injuries
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The Nervous System
Figure 14-18 5 of 11 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Microglia present antigens that stimulate specific defenses; glial cells secrete cytokines; innervation stimulates antigen-presenting cells Cytokines affect hypothalamic production of CRH and TRH
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The Endocrine System
Figure 14-18 6 of 11 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Glucocorticoids have anti-inflammatory effects; thymosins stimulate development and maturation of lymphocytes; many hormones affect immune function Thymus secretes thymosins; cytokines affect cells throughout the body
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The Cardiovascular System
Figure 14-18 7 of 11 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Distributes WBCs; carries antibodies that attack pathogens; clotting response helps restrict spread of pathogens; granulocytes and lymphocytes produced in bone marrow Fights infections of cardiovascular organs; returns tissue fluid to circulation
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The Respiratory System
Figure 14-18 8 of 11 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Alveolar phagocytes present antigens and trigger specific defenses; provides oxygen required by lymphocytes and eliminates carbon dioxide generated during their metabolic activities Tonsils protect against infection at entrance to respiratory tract
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The Digestive System
Figure 14-18 9 of 11 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Provides nutrients required by lymphatic tissues; digestive acids and enzymes provide nonspecific defense against pathogens Tonsils and lymphoid nodules of the intestine defend against infection and toxins absorbed from the digestive tract; lymphatics carry absorbed lipids to venous system
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The Urinary System
Figure 14-18 10 of 11 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Eliminates metabolic wastes generated by cellular activity; acid pH of urine provides nonspecific defense against urinary tract infection Provides specific defenses against urinary tract infections
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The Reproductive System
Figure 14-18 11 of 11 Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Lysozymes and bactericidal chemicals in secretions provide nonspecific defense against reproductive tract infections Provides IgA antibodies for secretion by epithelial glands
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